Volume 14 (2025) Download Cover Page

Moral Leadership in Primary Education: Constructing and Validating an Instrument for Principal Assessment

Article Number: e2025007  |  Published Online: January 2025  |  DOI: 10.22521/edupij.2025.14.7

Paul Arjanto , Feibry Feronika Wiwenly Senduk , Inaya Sari Melati , Tri Wahyuni Maduretno , Hisky Ryan Kawulur

Abstract

Background/purpose.  Moral leadership is essential to foster ethical, effective school management and create positive educational environments. Existing moral measurement instruments focus on general morality, and there is a lack of tools tailored to assess the moral leadership of prospective primary school principals in Indonesia. This study aims to develop and validate Bafadal’s Leadership Morality Questionnaire (BLMQ) to measure the moral leadership qualities of prospective elementary school principals based on spiritual, national, and human morality aspects.

Materials/methods. The instrument development followed these steps: (i) content validity was assessed by two experts, (ii) a readability test was conducted with 100 respondent teachers, (iii) an assessment of the internal structure, and (iv) a reliability test involving 362 teachers from East Java, Indonesia, who were selected using multi-stage random sampling.

Results. Content validity, assessed by two experts, demonstrated perfect alignment between moral variables, aspects, competencies, and items, with an inter-rater agreement index of 1, requiring no item elimination. The practical evaluation highlighted exceptional usability, achieving a perfect Kappa index of 1.000 (p < 0.01). The readability test confirmed the instrument's clarity. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) validated the instrument’s hierarchical structure, with the third-order model showing the best fit (e.g., RMSEA = 0.074, CFI = 0.915). Of the 65 items, 52 were validated with strong factor loadings (>0.5), while 13 items were excluded for enhancement. Reliability testing revealed high internal consistency, with Cronbach’s Alpha and Composite Reliability exceeding 0.9 for most aspects. Norms established using percentile scores classified moral leadership into high (P75 and above), moderate (P50–P75), and low (below P50), providing a robust framework for assessment and intervention.

Conclusion. The validated BLMQ offers a reliable and comprehensive instrument for measuring moral leadership in prospective school principals, contributing to their leadership development, classification, screening, and placement in primary education. 

Keywords: moral leadership; educational leadership; primary school principals; leadership assessment; psychometric validation

References

Alwin, D. F., & Krosnick, J. A. (1985). The measurement of values in surveys: a comparison of ratings and rankings. Public Opinion Quarterly, 49(4), 535–552. https://doi.org/10.1086/268949

Anastasiou, S., & Papakonstantinou, G. (2015). Greek high school teachers’ views on principals’ duties, activities and skills of effective school principals supporting and improving education. International Journal of Management in Education, 9(3), 340–358. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMIE.2015.070126

Aquino, K., & Reed, A. (2002). The self-importance of moral identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(6), 1423–1440. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1423

Arifin, I. (2015). Kompetensi Kepribadian Kepala Sekolah Berbasis Moral Spiritual dalam Mengimplementasi Pendidikan Karakter. Jurusan Administrasi Pendidikan FIP UM, 374–385.

Aristotles. (1984). Nichomachean ethics (5th Ed). E. M. Albert, T. C. Denise, & S. P. Peterfreund (Eds). Wadsworth.

Ayala, F. J. (2012). The big questions. evolution. quercus. http://lccn.loc.gov/2013942147

Bafadal, I., Gunawan, I., Nurabadi, A., & Juharyanto, J. (2020). School performance development: measurement of variables affected by the moral debate program: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Education and Technology (ICET 2020). 6th International Conference on Education and Technology (ICET 2020), Malang, Indonesia. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.201204.036

Bafadal, I., Nurabadi, A., Gunawan, I., Adha, M. A., Hung, M. L., Pratiwi, F. D., & Akhbar, A. F. (2021a, November). Moral as the basis of leadership practices in excellent schools. In 7th International Conference on Education and Technology (ICET 2021) (pp. 149–154). Atlantis Press.

Bafadal, I., Nurabadi, A., Gunawan, I., Juharyanto, J., Syafira Ariyanti, N., Adha, M. A., Hung, M.-L., Syah, A., & Burham, I. (2021b). Moral-based learning leadership process in excellent school. Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Technology and Education (ICITE 2021), 609, 272–277.

Bajpai, S., Bajpai, R., & Chaturvedi, H. (2015). Evaluation of inter-rater agreement and inter-rater reliability for observational data: an overview of concepts and methods. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 41, 20–27.

Bass, B. M., & Steidlmeier, P. (1999). Ethics, character, and authentic transformational leadership behavior. The Leadership Quarterly, 10(2), 181–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1048-9843(99)00016-8

Bentham, J. (1976). The principle of utility (Glicman, Ed.; p. 534). St. Martin`s Press.

Biggs, D. A., Colesante, R. J., Biggs, D. A., & Colesante, R. J. (2015). The Moral Competence Test: An examination of validity for samples in the United States. Journal of Moral Education, 44(4), 498–516. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2015.1087390

Black, J. E., & Reynolds, W. M. (2016). Development, reliability, and validity of the Moral Identity Questionnaire. Personality and Individual Differences, 97, 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.03.041

Bostyn, D. H., Sevenhant, S., & Roets, A. (2018). Of mice, men, and trolleys: hypothetical judgment versus real-life behavior in trolley-style moral dilemmas. Psychological Science, 29(7), 1084–1093. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617752640

Brauckmann, S., Feldhoff, T., & Pashiardis, P. (2016). Instructional leadership in Germany: an evolutionary perspective. International Studies in Educational Administration, 44(2), 5–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-037268-6.50001-7

Brewster, C., & Klump, J. (2005). Leadership practices of successful principals. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory (NWREL), April, 1–57.

Brown. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research (2nd ed). The Guilford Press.

Burhanuddin, B. (2017). Behaviours of the effective leadership in universities: findings of a meta-analysis study. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, 128(Icet), 271–277. https://doi.org/10.2991/icet-17.2017.48

Bush, T., & Glover, D. (2014). School leadership models: what do we know? School Leadership & Management, 34(5), 553–571. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2014.928680

Byrne, B. M. (2016). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: basic concepts, applications, and programming (3rd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315757421

Caine, T. M. (1976). Psychological testing (4th ed.) [Review of the book Psychological testing, by A. Anastasi]. Group Analysis, 9(2), 129. https://doi.org/10.1177/053331647600900215

Canetti, D., Waismel-Manor, I., Cohen, N., & Rapaport, C. (2014). What does national resilience mean in a democracy? Evidence from the United States and Israel. Armed Forces and Society, 40(3), 504–520. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327X12466828

Christensen, J. F., Flexas, A., Calabrese, M., Gut, N. K., & Gomila, A. (2014). Moral judgment reloaded: A moral dilemma validation study   . In Frontiers in Psychology   (Vol. 5).

Clandinin, D. J. (2006). Narrative inquiry: a methodology for studying lived experience. Research Studies in Music Education, 27(1), 44–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/1321103X060270010301

Cohen, R. J., & Swerdlik, M. E. (2014). Psychological testing and assessment: an introduction to tests and measurement (8th Ed., p. 30).

Crocker, L., & Algina, J. (2006). Introduction to classical and modern test theory. Wadsworth Pub Co.

Cronbach, L. J. (1990). Essesntials of Psychological Testing (Fifth). HarperCollinsPublishers, Inc.

Danopoulos, C. P. (2017). Civil liberties and rights, equality and the quality of democracy in Greece. Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, 19(3), 225–242. https://doi.org/10.1080/19448953.2017.1267364

Das-Smaal, E. A. (1990). Biases in categorization. In Advances in Psychology (Vol. 68, pp. 349–386). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-4115(08)61332-1

DeVellis, R. F., & Thorpe, C. T. (2021). Scale development: theory and applications. Sage publications.

Dong, R., & Ni, S. (2018). Psychometric properties of a Chinese version of the Moral Attentiveness Scale. Ethics and Behavior, 28(2), 154–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508422.2016.1274656

Durgun Ozan, Y., Duman, M., Çiçek, Ö., & Boz, İ. (2020). The Turkish version of the Nursing Students' Perceptions of Instructor Caring Scale: an assessment of psychometric properties. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 56(1), 194–200. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppc.12411

Falikowski, A. F. (1990). Moral Philosophy: Theories, Skills, and Applications. Prentice Hall.

Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id. TACD Journal, 17(1), 5–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/1046171X.1989.12034344

Fullan. (2015). The new meaning of educational change (5th ed.). Routledge.

George, D., & Mallery, P. (2003). SPSS for Windows step by step: a simple guide and reference, 11.0 update (4th ed). Allyn and Bacon.

Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. In In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. (pp. xxx, 184). Harvard University Press.

Gılıç, F., Kanadlı, S., Gündüz, Y., & İnandı, Y. (2024). The mediating role of job satisfaction between leadership and organizational performance and the moderating effect of educational context. Educational Process International Journal, 13(2). https://doi.org/10.22521/edupij.2024.132.4

Graham, J., Nosek, B. A., Haidt, J., Iyer, R., Koleva, S., & Ditto, P. H. (2011). Mapping the moral domain. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(2), 366–385. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021847

Greenfield Jr., W. D. (2004). Moral leadership in schools. Journal of Educational Administration, 42(2), 174–196. https://doi.org/10.1108/09578230410525595

Gregory, R. J. (2016). Psychological testing history, principles, and applications (7th ed., p. 8). Pearson Education, Inc.

Gumuruh, A. R., & Adinata, T. P. (2020). Implementation of Archipelago insights in national integration. Santhet: Jurnal Sejarah, Pendidikan, Dan Humaniora, 4(1), 35–35. https://doi.org/10.36526/js.v3i2.e-ISSN

Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2019). Multivariate data analysis. In Cengage (Eighth). Cengage.

Hallinger, P., Gümüş, S., & Bellibaş, M. Ş. (2020). “Are principals instructional leaders yet?” A science map of the knowledge base on instructional leadership, 1940–2018. Scientometrics, 122(3), 1629–1650. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-020-03360-5

Hallinger, P., & Heck, R. H. (2010). Collaborative leadership and school improvement: Understanding the impact on school capacity and student learning. School Leadership and Management, 30(2), 95–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632431003663214

Hargreaves, A., & Fink, D. (2006). Sustainable leadership (1st ed). Jossey-Bass.

Hinkin, T. R. (2005). Scale development principles and practices. In R. A. Swanson & E. F. Holton (Eds.), Research in organizations: Foundations and methods in inquiry (pp. 161–180). Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M. (2007). Structural equation modeling: Guidelines for determining model fit. The Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 6(1), 53–60. https://doi.org/10.21427/D7CF7R

Id, Y. C., Id, H. H., Bankhead, M., & Thoma, S. J. (2020). Validity study using factor analyses on the Defining Issues Test-2 in undergraduate populations. 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238110

Ishii, Y., & Ogawa, K. (2024). An analysis of school-based management on learning achievement in Senegal primary education. Educational Process International Journal, 13(2). https://doi.org/10.22521/edupij.2024.132.5

Johnson, R. B., & Christensen, L. B. (2020). Educational research: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches (Seventh edition). SAGE.

Jones, C. (2019). Determining moral leadership as argued from an evolutionary point of view – With reference to gender, race, poverty and sexual orientation. HTS Teologiese Studies / Theological Studies, 75(4), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v75i4.5215

Kant, I. (1963). Lectures on Ethics (p. 118). Hackett Publishing.

Keller, S. S. (2000). Wrapped in a mantle of freedom and responsibility. The Witness, 6(6), 28–29.

Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (Fourth edition). The Guilford Press.

Kohlberg, L. (1963). The development of children’s orientations toward a moral order. Vita Humana, 6(1), 11–33.

Kohlberg, L. (1964). Development of moral character and moral ideology. In M. L. Hofmann & L. W. Hofmann (Eds.), Review of child development research. Russell Sage Foundation.

Kohlberg, L. (1971). From Is to ought: how to commit the naturalistic fallacy and get away with it in the study of moral development. Academic Press.

Leithwood, K. (2007). What we know about educational leadership. In J. M. Burger, C. F. Webber, & P. Klinck (Eds.), Intelligent Leadership (Vol. 6, pp. 41–66). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6022-9_4

Leithwood, K., Harris, A., & Hopkins, D. (2008). Seven strong claims about successful school leadership. School Leadership & Management, 28(1), 27–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632430701800060

Lind, G. (2019). Making moral competence visible. In G. Lind (Ed.), How to teach moral competence. Logos Verlag Berlin.

Maisyaroh, M., Juharyanto, J., Bafadal, I., Wiyono, B., Saputra, B. R., Ariyanti, N., & Lesmana, I. (2023). Learning management and leadership skills of Madrasah principals in implementing freedom to learn policy. In Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Education and Social Science (ICESS 2023) (pp. 418–426). Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/978-2-494069-95-4_50

Marsh, H. W., Wen, Z., & Hau, K.-T. (2004). Structural equation models of latent interactions: evaluation of alternative estimation strategies and indicator construction. Psychological Methods, 9(3), 275–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.9.3.275

Mill, J. S. (1976). Utilitarianism (J. Glickman, Ed.; p. 542). St. Martin`s Press.

Miller, L. A., & Lovler, R. L. (2020). Foundations of psychological testing (Sixth Edition).

Narvaez, D., & Rest, J. (1995). The four components of acting morally. In W. Kurtines & J. Gewirtz (Eds.), Moral behavior and moral development: An introduction (pp. 385–400). McGraw-Hill.

Northouse, P. G. (2019). Leadership: theory and practice (Eighth Edition). SAGE Publications.

Nunthawong, J., Yunibhand, J., & Chaiyawat, W. (2020). Development of Thai moral integrity scale in professional nurses. Pacific Rim International Journal of Nursing Research, 24(1), 102–117.

Peter, S. C., Whelan, J. P., Pfund, R. A., & Meyers, A. W. (2018). A text comprehension approach to questionnaire readability: An example using gambling disorder measures. Psychological Assessment, 30(12), 1567–1580. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000610

Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Oxford University Press.

Piaget, J. (1932). The moral judgment of the child. In The moral judgment of the child. (pp. ix, 418). Harcourt, Brace.

Plake, B. S., & Wise, L. L. (2014). What is the role and importance of the revised AERA, APA, NCME standards for educational and psychological testing? Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 33(4), 4–12.

Plato. (1976). The republic (p. 218). Penguin Books.

Qurratu, D., Suhoyo, Y., Budi, A., & Claramita, M. (2023). Development of a Self-Evaluation Instrument with Programmatic Assessment Components for Undergraduate Medical Students. European Journal of Educational Research, 12(2), 649–662. https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.12.2.649

Rahmawati, R., Rustaman, N., Hamidah, I., & Rusdiana, D. (2018). The development and validation of conceptual knowledge test to evaluate conceptual knowledge of physics prospective teachers on electricity and magnetism topic. Jurnal Pendidikan IPA Indonesia, 7, 483–490. https://doi.org/10.15294/jpii.v7i4.13490

Rawls, J. (1971). A theory of justice (p. 40). Harvard University Press.

Rest, J. R. (1980). Development in moral judgment research. Developmental Psychology, 16, 251–256. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.16.4.251

Rest, J. R., & Narváez, D. (1995). Moral development in the professions: psychology and applied ethics. In Choice Reviews Online (Vol. 32, Issue 09, pp. 5012-32–5012). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.32-5012

Risnain, M., Fatahullah, F., Nurbani, E. S., & Rusnan, R. (2021). The model regulation of Wawasan Nusantara as Indonesian maritime development strategy towards world maritime axis. In Proceedings of the 2nd Annual Conference on Education and Social Science (ACCESS 2020) (Vol. 556, pp. 216–218). Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.210525.078

Robinson, V. M. J. (2008). Forging the links between distributed leadership and educational outcomes. Journal of Educational Administration, 46(2), 241–256. https://doi.org/10.1108/09578230810863299

Roccas, S., Sagiv, L., & Navon, M. (2017). Methodological issues in studying personal values bt  - values and behavior: taking a cross cultural perspective (S. Roccas & L. Sagiv, Eds.; pp. 15–50). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56352-7_2

Roland, G. (2014). The meaning of caring from nurses working at an intensive coronary care unit in Mauritius, Caring 4(8), 192–197.

Rudnev, M., Vauclair, C. M., Aminihajibashi, S., Becker, M., Bilewicz, M., Guevara, J. L. C., Collier-Baker, E., Crespo, C., Eastwick, P., Fischer, R., Friese, M., Gomez, A., Guerra, V., Hanke, K., Hooper, N., Huang, L. L., Karasawa, M., Kuppens, P., Loughnan, S., … Bastian, B. (2020). Measurement invariance of the moral vitalism scale across 28 cultural groups. PLoS ONE, 15(6 June), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0233989

Saaduddin, S., Gistituati, N., Kiram, P. Y., Jama, J., & Khairani, Y. (2019). The effects of principal leadership on effective school management. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change, 5(6), 359–367.

Schwartz, S. H. (2007). Universalism values and the inclusiveness of our moral universe. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38(6), 711–728. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022107308992

Seashore Louis, K., Dretzke, B., & Wahlstrom, K. (2010). How does leadership affect student achievement? Results from a national US survey. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 21(3), 315–336. https://doi.org/10.1080/09243453.2010.486586

Sergiovanni, T. J. (1992). Moral leadership. NASSP Bulletin, 76(547), 121–121. https://doi.org/10.1177/019263659207654718.

Shapiro, J. P., & Stefkovich, J. A. (2016). Ethical Leadership and Decision Making in Education: Applying Theoretical Perspectives to Complex Dilemmas (4th ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315773339

Smolkowski, K. (2023). Social consequences of educational measures: A commentary. School Psychology, 38(3), 182–191. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000547

Spector, B. (2019). Moral leadership? Be careful what you wish for. Leadership, 15(1), 123–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/1742715017736659

Spillane, J. P., & Lee, L. C. (2014). Novice school principals’ sense of ultimate responsibility: problems of practice in transitioning to the principal’s Office. Educational Administration Quarterly, 50(3), 431–465. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X13505290

Starratt, R. J. (2004). Ethical leadership. Jossey-Bass.

Sultoni, I. G. (2023). Transformational leadership and organizational citizenship behavior of virtual teaching during the covid-19 pandemic in Indonesia: the mediating role of job satisfaction. Educational Process International Journal, 12(3). https://doi.org/10.22521/edupij.2023.123.3

Sunandar, A., Efendi, M., Ediyanto, E., Thahar, M. M., Ulfah, N. H., Adha, M. A., Lailiyah, N., & Firdiana, A. D. (2022). Healthy school management model of child-friendly schools: children nutrition status and learning atmosphere. MOJEM: Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Management, 10(2), 73–89.

Tavakol, M., & Dennick, R. (2011). Making sense of Cronbach’s alpha. International Journal of Medical Education, 2, 53–55. https://doi.org/10.5116/ijme.4dfb.8dfd

Thompson, B. (2008). Foundations of behavioral statistics: An insight-based approach (Paperback ed). Guilford Press.

Turan, S., & Bektas, F. (2013). The relationship between school culture and leadership practices. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 13(52), 155–168.

Turiel, E. (1983). The development of social knowledge: morality and convention (Vol. 33, Issue 2). Cambridge University Press.

Uebersax, J. S. (1982). A generalized Kappa Coefficient. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 42(1), 181–183. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164482421018

Urbina, S. (2014). Essentials of psychological testing (A. Kaufman & N. Kaufman, Eds.; Second). Wiley Blackwell.

Valentine, J. W., & Bowman, M. L. (1991). Effective principal, effective school: does research support the assumption? NASSP Bulletin, 75(539), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1177/019263659107553903

Yukl, G., & Gardner, W. L. (2020). Leadership in organizations (9th ed.). Pearson Education Limited.

Želvys, R., Zabardast, A., Nemati, S., Adak, K., & Shariati, O. (2019). Mindful principals in effective schools: Mediating role of organizational climate and organizational citizenship behavior. Pedagogika, 133(1), 5–27. https://doi.org/10.15823/p.2019.133.1

Announcement

EDUPIJ Citation Metrics

EDUPIJ News!

► Educational Process International Journal has changed to publish in article number order instead of in page range order beginning with Volume 14 (2025).