Mastery Over Minutes: Instructional Leadership as the Catalyst for Competency-Based Education

Background/purpose. Traditional education systems often rely on time-based progression, advancing students based on instructional minutes rather than demonstrated mastery. This perpetuates inequities and limits personalized learning. Competency-Based Education (CBE) offers an alternative by prioritizing mastery over seat-time. However, implementing CBE in resource-constrained contexts like Lesotho presents challenges. This study investigates how instructional leadership, guided by Transformative Leadership Theory (TLT), can catalyze the shift to CBE by disrupting entrenched hierarchies, reimagining assessment, and promoting equity.

Materials/methods. Using a qualitative case study design within a transformative research paradigm, the study engaged six instructional leaders (three Heads of Departments and three teacher leaders) from diverse secondary schools in Lesotho. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, document analysis, and observations, and analyzed using thematic analysis to uncover leadership practices and challenges in implementing CBE.

Results. Findings reveal that instructional leaders foster teacher collaboration, challenge hierarchical norms, and build capacity for mastery-focused teaching. They employ flexible modular curricula, formative assessments, and stakeholder mobilization strategies. Despite resource limitations and cultural resistance, leaders leverage technology and improvisation to personalize learning and promote inclusivity. However, tensions persist, including performative collaboration, inconsistent assessment reliability, and equity gaps.

Conclusion. Framed by Transformative Leadership Theory, instructional leadership is pivotal in advancing CBE in constrained settings. The study proposes the TIL-CBE model, which includes disrupting time-bound structures, fostering collective agency, and equity-driven practices. Sustainable reform requires supportive policies, targeted investment, and ongoing leadership development.

Keywords: Competency-based education, Mastery, Instructional leadership, Transformative leadership theory

References

Açıkgöz, Ö., & Babadoğan, C. (2021). Competency-based education: A systematic review. Journal of Education and Learning, 10(3), 45-58. https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v10n3p45

Aloisi, C. (2023). Competency-based learning in higher education: Challenges and opportunities. International Journal of Educational Reform, 32(1), 12-29. https://doi.org/10.1177/10567879221123456

Aurora Institute. (2023). CBE’s equity principle: Culturally responsive teaching as the foundation. Retrieved from https://aurora-institute.org/cw_post/cbes-equity-principle-culturally-responsive-teaching-as-the-foundation/

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

Chowdhury, S., & Alzarrad, A. (2025). Advancing Community-Based Education: Strategies, Challenges, and Future Directions for Scaling Impact in Higher Education. Trends in Higher Education, 4(2), 21.

Chowdhury, S., & Alzarrad, M. (2025). Instructional leadership in competency-based systems: A comparative study. Educational Leadership Review, 30(2), 88-104. https://doi.org/10.1080/ELR.2025.30288

Competency-Based Education Network. (2024). Addressing technology infrastructure challenges. Retrieved from https://www.c-ben.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/CBEN-24-041-Tech-White-Paper.pdf

Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). SAGE Publications.

Cruz, L., Dickens, E., Flaming, A. L. B., & Wheeler, L. B. (2022). Embracing complexity: An inclusive framework for the scholarship of educational development. International Journal for Academic Development, 27(1), 45-57. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360144X.2021.1901102

Darling-Hammond, L., Schachner, A. C., Wojcikiewicz, S. K., & Flook, L. (2024). Educating teachers to enact the science of learning and development. Applied Developmental Science, 28(1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2022.2130506

Darling-Hammond, L., Schachner, A., & Edgerton, A. K. (2020). Restarting and Reinventing School: Learning in the Time of COVID and Beyond. Learning Policy Institute.

Dubazana, Y. (2025). Equity-Driven Curriculum Design: Blended Learning for Inclusive Education in the Global South. In E. Charamba, & D. N. Ndhlovana (Eds.), Enablers, Barriers, and Challenges for Inclusive Curriculum (pp. 227-250). IGI Global Scientific Publishing.

Eden, C. A., Chisom, O. N., & Adeniyi, I. S. (2024). Promoting digital literacy and social equity in education: Lessons from successful initiatives. International Journal of Management & Entrepreneurship Research, 6(3), 687-696.

Ehrich, L. C., & English, F. W. (2024). Reimagining Leadership Roles beyond the Shadow of Bureaucracy. Education Sciences, 14(3), 331. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14030331

Helsper, E. (2021). The digital disconnect: The social causes and consequences of digital inequalities. SAGE Publications.

Jamil, M., Mahmood, A., & Masood, S. (2023). Fostering critical thinking in Pakistani secondary school science: A teacher’s viewpoint. Global Educational Studies Review, 8(2), 645-659. https://doi.org/10.31703/gesr.2023(VIII-II).58

Kareem, J., Patrick, H. A., Prabakaran, N. B. V., Tantia, V., MPM, P. K., & Mukherjee, U. (2023). Transformational educational leaders inspire school educators’ commitment. In Frontiers in Education, 8, p. 1171513). https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2023.1171513

Khan, Q., & Ashraf, S. (2023). Examination-Centered Approach Instead of Student-Centered; Negative Washbacks, Spoiling Real Learning in Education. Bulletin of Education and Research, 45(2), 93-106.

KnowledgeWorks. (2024). Achieving equity in personalized, competency-based learning. Retrieved from https://knowledgeworks.org/resources/achieving-equity-personalized-competency-based-learning/

Laskar, J. H. (2024). Content-based learning to competency-based education: A paradigm shift. Educational Reforms Journal, 18(1), 99-110.

Leithwood, K. (2021). A review of evidence about equitable school leadership. Education Sciences, 11(8), 377. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11080377

Leithwood, K., Sun, J., & Schumacker, R. (2020). How school leadership influences student learning: A test of “The four paths model”. Educational Administration Quarterly, 56(4), 570-599. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X19878772

Leithwood, K., Sun, J., Zhang, S., & Hua, C. (2024). Academic culture: Its meaning, measure and contribution to student learning. Journal of School Leadership, 34(5), 414-442. https://doi.org/10.1177/10526846241258199

Lesotho Ministry of Education and Training. (2024). Kingdom of Lesotho Ministry of Education and Training partnership compact. Global Partnership for Education. Retrieved from https://www.globalpartnership.org/node/document/download?file=document/file/2024-04-lesotho-partnership-compact.pdf

Lin, H. F., Lu, H. L., & Lin, M. J. (2025). The stability and acceptance of the “system of competency‐based curriculum design” framework: Perspectives of teachers. The Curriculum Journal, 36(1), 91-109. https://doi.org/10.1002/curj.265

Long, C., Bernoteit, S., & Davidson, S. (2020). Competency-based education: A clear, equitable path forward for today’s learners. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 52(6), 30-37. https://doi.org/10.1080/00091383.2020.1839335

Mehrl, M., & Böhmelt, T. (2021). How mediator leadership transitions influence mediation effectiveness. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 38(1), 45-62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0738894220916833

Mertens, D. M. (2010). Philosophy in mixed methods teaching: The transformative paradigm as illustration. International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches, 4(1), 9-18. https://doi.org/10.5172/mra.4.1.9

Mokhele-Makgalwa, M. L., & Mohale, M. A. Reimagining Educational Assessment in the Age of Multiple Dimensions of Learning in a Global Society. 40th AEAA Conference Proceedings, 2024. https://doi.org/10.38140/obp2-2024

Moyer, R. C. (2021). Serving Multiple Gods: A Narrative Inquiry of the Culture of Distributed Instructional Leadership in an IB MYP School (Doctoral dissertation). Appalachian State University.

Mustofa, I., Dara, S., & Sok, V. S. (2025). Policy and Practice of Competency-Based Education in Indonesia: Challenges and Prospects for the Future. Journal Emerging Technologies in Education, 3(2), 54-64. https://doi.org/10.70177/jete.v3i1.2131

Nayak, A. P., & Kachhi, Z. (2025). Balancing the Tedious See-Saw of Academic Pressure and Personal Growth. In S. P. Gonçalves (Ed.), Nurturing Student Well-Being in the Modern World (pp. 325-352). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3693-1455-5.ch013

Nephitaly, B., & Olateju, M. (2025). Why Africa Urgently Requires Transformation of Its Education Systems. Brookings Institution. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/articles/why-africa-urgently-requires-transformation-of-its-education-systems/

Nortvedt, G. A., Wiese, E., Brown, M., Burns, D., McNamara, G., O’Hara, J., ... & Taneri, P. O. (2020). Aiding culturally responsive assessment in schools in a globalising world. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 32(1), 5-27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-020-09316-w

Opoku, M. P. (2023). Inclusive School Leadership in Developing Context: What Are the Levers of Change? Journal of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies, 7(2), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1177/19427751221087731

Pahuja, R. (2024). Ethical Dimensions of Informed Consent: Principles, Processes, and Case Studies. In R. K. Kushwaha, P. K. Yadav, J. Sonker, & A. Devi (Eds.), Ethical Frameworks in Special Education: A Guide for Researchers (Vol. 2nd, pp. 116-140). Springer.

Palinkas, L. A., Horwitz, S. M., Green, C. A., Wisdom, J. P., Duan, N., & Hoagwood, K. (2015). Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed method implementation research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 42(5), 533-544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-013-0528-y

Pasque, P. A. (2023). Collaborative approaches to community change: The complexities of power, collaboration, and social change. In B. Overton, P. A. Pasque, & J. C. Burkhardt (Eds.), Engaged Research and Practice (1st ed., pp. 75-94). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003444466-7

Roberts, J. L., & Inman, T. F. (2023). Strategies for differentiating instruction: Best practices for the classroom. Routledge.

Sengeh, D., & Winthrop, R. (2022). Transforming Education Systems: Why, What, and How. Brookings Institution. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Brooking_2-Pager_FINAL.pdf

Shatten, U. (2024). A Quantitative Assessment of Adoption Patterns in Competency-Based Education Within United States-Based Higher Education (Doctoral dissertation). South College.

Shields, C. M. (2016). Transformative leadership in education: Equitable change in an uncertain world (2nd ed.). Routledge.

Shields, C. M., & Hesbol, K. A. (2020). Transformative leadership approaches to inclusion, equity, and social justice. Journal of School Leadership, 30(1), 3-22. https://doi.org/10.1177/1052684619873343

Smith, C. (2025). Rethinking Educational Equity in an Age of Global Disruption. ELQN Journal, 12(1), 23-40.

Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. SAGE Publications.

Tapala, T. T., Van Niekerk, M. P., & Mentz, K. (2021). Curriculum leadership barriers experienced by heads of department: a look at South African secondary schools. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 24(6), 771-788. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2020.1740796

Thaanyane, M. E. (2021). Entrepreneurship Education Teachers’ Practices in Preparing Learners for the World of Work: A Case of Lesotho Secondary Schools (Doctoral dissertation). University of South Africa.

Tlali, T., & Matete, N. (2021). The challenges faced by heads of departments in selected Lesotho high schools. School Leadership & Management, 41(3), 194-210. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2020.1851672

Tsui, L. (2002). Fostering critical thinking through effective pedagogy: Evidence from four institutional case studies. The Journal of Higher Education, 73(6), 740-763. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2002.11777179

Wanjiku, J. T. (2025). Kenya’s Education Reform: Embracing a New Learning Framework. Journal of Educational Change, 26(1), 45-62. https://doi.org/10.1177/1234567890123

Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research and applications (Vol. 6). SAGE Publications.

Announcement

EDUPIJ Citation Metrics

EDUPIJ News!